Modernization of social governance is an important component of modernizing the national governance system and governance capacity. With the integration and development of location-aware technologies such as mobile communications and satellite positioning have generated massive mobile big data with spatiotemporal identifiers, providing an important opportunity for high-precision, real-time, and scientific transformation of social governance. This paper summarized the 5V +5C characteristics and main sources of mobile big data, reviewed research progress in mobile big data-driven human mobility pattern mining and mobile network model construction, and systematically examined its typical applications and frontier advances in key social governance scenarios, including poverty identification, economic assessment, epidemic prevention and control, and emergency response. On this basis, this paper further analyzed the limitations of mobile big data in terms of representativeness, data bias, privacy protection, and usage compliance, and also discussed future research prospects in multi-source data fusion and spatiotemporal semantic alignment, privacy-preserving computation and real-time response in disaster scenarios, artificial society generation, and large model-driven digital simulation.